Jihad, a term frequently misunderstood and misrepresented, is a fundamental concept in Islam. Far from exclusively denoting warfare, its profound meaning encompasses a vast spectrum of human striving and struggle.
The Concept of Jihad: A Multifaceted Striving
The word “Jihad” (جهاد) originates from the Arabic root “j-h-d” (جهد), which means “to strive,” “to exert,” “to struggle,” or “to toil.” In the Islamic context, Jihad refers to the exertion of one’s utmost effort in the path of Allah. This exertion is multifaceted and applies to various aspects of human life, encompassing spiritual, moral, intellectual, social, and, under specific circumstances, defensive military efforts.
It is crucial to differentiate the authentic Islamic understanding of Jihad from the popular misconception that exclusively equates it with “holy war.” While defensive military action is one aspect, it represents only a small fraction of the broader concept. The primary emphasis of Jihad within Islamic scriptures and tradition is on internal purification, moral upliftment, and the establishment of justice.
The essence of Jihad lies in the sincere dedication of one’s faculties—physical, intellectual, and spiritual—to uphold the principles of God, promote good, and prevent evil, both within oneself and in society. This lifelong commitment reflects a believer’s continuous effort to align their actions with divine will.
Examining the Kinds of Jihad
Islamic scholarship typically categorizes Jihad into several types, often distinguishing between the “Greater Jihad” and the “Lesser Jihad.”
1. Al-Jihad al-Akbar (The Greater Jihad): The Inner Struggle
The “Greater Jihad” refers to the spiritual and moral struggle against one’s own lower self (nafs), desires, temptations, and evil inclinations. This is considered the most challenging and significant form of Jihad, as it requires constant vigilance, self-discipline, and devotion.
- Jihad an-Nafs (Struggle of the Self): This involves striving for spiritual purification, overcoming egoism, pride, envy, greed, and other negative traits. It encompasses improving one’s character, engaging in acts of worship (prayer, fasting, charity), acquiring knowledge, and seeking closeness to God. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is reported to have said, upon returning from a battle, “We have returned from the lesser Jihad to the greater Jihad.” When asked what the greater Jihad was, he replied, “The struggle against one’s own self.” This Hadith underscores the profound importance of internal struggle over external conflict.
- Jihad bi al-Qalb (Struggle of the Heart): This entails purifying one’s intentions, thoughts, and beliefs from corrupting influences. It means striving to maintain sincerity, faith, and righteousness in one’s inner disposition.
2. Al-Jihad al-Asghar (The Lesser Jihad): External Manifestations
The “Lesser Jihad” encompasses external efforts made in the path of Allah. These efforts are diverse and can manifest in various forms:
- Jihad bi al-Lisan/Kalam (Struggle by the Tongue/Word): This involves speaking the truth, enjoining good (amr bi al-ma’ruf) and forbidding evil (nahy an al-munkar), spreading the message of Islam peacefully, advocating for justice, and speaking out against oppression and falsehood. This form emphasizes intellectual discourse, constructive criticism, and clear communication.
- Jihad bi al-Qalam/Ilm (Struggle by the Pen/Knowledge): This refers to the pursuit and dissemination of knowledge, research, writing, and intellectual defense of Islamic principles. It involves intellectual effort to counter misinformation, promote understanding, and contribute to human progress. This form emphasizes education and scholarly pursuit as a means of uplifting society.
- Jihad bi al-Mal (Struggle by Wealth): This involves spending one’s wealth for charitable causes, supporting the needy, funding educational institutions, contributing to social welfare programs, and generally using financial resources to benefit society and advance the cause of truth and justice. It emphasizes economic justice and social responsibility.
- Jihad bi al-Saif/Qital (Struggle by the Sword/Fighting): This is the defensive military aspect of Jihad, which is highly conditional and strictly regulated in Islam. It refers to engaging in armed conflict solely for defensive purposes, to repel aggression, protect the innocent, or secure religious freedom, when all other peaceful means have been exhausted. This form is never for conquest, forced conversion, or territorial expansion. It is strictly for defense and the removal of oppression.
Evaluating the Manner of Carrying Out Jihad and Its Lessons
The manner in which any form of Jihad is carried out, particularly the defensive military aspect (Qital), is governed by stringent ethical guidelines derived from the Quran and the Sunnah (practice of Prophet Muhammad). The preservation of life, justice, proportionality, and the avoidance of aggression are paramount.
1. Quranic Directives on Defensive Struggle: Q.2:190-193
These verses provide foundational principles for engagement in defensive combat, emphasizing limitations and ethical conduct:
- Q.2:190: “Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors.”
- Permission for Fighting: This verse explicitly grants permission to fight only those who initiate hostilities against believers. It is a response to aggression, not an initiation of it. The phrase “in the cause of Allah” means for truth, justice, and the defense of faith, not for personal gain or worldly power.
- Prohibition of Transgression: The crucial phrase “do not transgress limits” (لا تعتدوا) imposes strict ethical boundaries. This includes:
- Not initiating hostilities.
- Not harming non-combatants (women, children, elderly, religious clergy).
- Not destroying property, crops, or places of worship.
- Not mutilating bodies.
- Not engaging in disproportionate retaliation.
- Lesson: Defensive combat is permitted, but it must be conducted with utmost restraint, adherence to ethical rules, and without aggression or excess. Allah condemns those who exceed these limits.
- Q.2:191: “And slay them wherever ye catch them, and turn them out from where they have Turned you out; for persecution is worse than slaughter; but fight them not at the Sacred Mosque, unless they (first) fight you there; but if they fight you, slay them. Such is the reward of those who suppress faith.”
- Retaliation for Expulsion and Persecution: This verse addresses specific historical contexts where Muslims were persecuted, expelled from their homes (e.g., Mecca), and prevented from practicing their faith. It permits fighting those who committed such acts, even to the point of expelling them from their strongholds, as persecution (fitna) is deemed a grave sin, causing more harm than physical killing in terms of social and spiritual well-being.
- Sanctity of Sacred Places: It reiterates the prohibition against fighting in the Sacred Mosque (Al-Masjid al-Haram) unless attacked there. This highlights the importance of respecting sanctuaries and avoiding unnecessary conflict, even in the face of provocation.
- Lesson: The permission to fight is tied to severe oppression and expulsion. Even then, sacred spaces are to be respected unless hostilities are initiated within them. Persecution, which denies religious freedom and forces people from their homes, is a severe justification for defensive action.
- Q.2:192: “But if they cease, Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.”
- Cessation of Hostilities: This verse unequivocally states that if the aggressors cease their fighting and persecution, the conflict must immediately end. There is no justification for continued warfare once the threat is removed.
- Lesson: The goal of defensive combat is to restore peace and justice, not to annihilate the enemy. Once the enemy surrenders or ceases aggression, mercy and forgiveness are paramount. This emphasizes the temporary and defensive nature of armed conflict in Islam.
- Q.2:193: “And fight them until there is no more persecution, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah altogether; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression.”
- Goal of Jihad (Qital): The ultimate objective of defensive fighting is to eliminate persecution (fitna) and establish an environment where justice, religious freedom, and the remembrance of Allah can flourish without hindrance. This does not mean forced conversion, but rather the creation of a just society where all can practice their beliefs freely.
- Distinction between Oppressors and Others: Once persecution ceases, hostility is directed only against those who persist in oppression (zulm). This distinguishes between those who cease hostilities and those who continue to oppress, reinforcing the principle of targeted action against injustice.
- Lesson: The purpose of defensive fighting is not conquest or revenge, but the establishment of justice and religious freedom. It must cease when its objective (the end of persecution) is achieved, and ongoing hostility is only permissible against those who remain oppressors.
2. Quranic Justification for Defensive Action: Q.22:39-40
These verses are historically significant as they represent the first explicit permission granted to Muslims to defend themselves.
- Q.22:39: “To those against whom war is made, permission is given (to fight), because they are wronged; and verily, Allah is Most Powerful for their aid.”
- First Permission, Not Command: This verse marks a pivotal moment in Islamic history, granting the initial authorization for armed self-defense. Prior to this, Muslims were enjoined to endure persecution with patience.
- Justification: Being Wronged (ظلموا): The explicit reason given for this permission is that the believers “are wronged” or “suffer injustice.” This underscores that defensive struggle is a last resort, undertaken only when grave injustice and oppression are inflicted upon a community.
- Divine Support: The assurance that “Allah is Most Powerful for their aid” provides solace and strength to those who are justly defending themselves.
- Lesson: Permission for armed struggle is contingent upon being unjustly attacked or wronged, establishing a clear line between aggression and legitimate self-defense.
- Q.22:40: “(They are) those who have been expelled from their homes without just cause, – except that they say, “Our Lord is Allah!” Did not Allah check one set of people by means of another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of Allah is much commemorated. Allah will certainly aid those who aid His (cause); for verily Allah is Full of Strength, Exalted in Might.”
- Specific Wrong: Expulsion from Homes: This verse elaborates on the nature of the “wronging,” specifying that Muslims were “expelled from their homes without just cause” merely for believing in Allah. This highlights the defense of fundamental human rights, including freedom of belief and residence.
- Defense of All Places of Worship: Crucially, this verse broadens the purpose of defensive action beyond merely protecting Muslim places of worship. It states that if Allah did not allow some people to defend themselves against others, “monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques,” where Allah’s name is remembered, would be destroyed. This is a powerful testament to Islam’s commitment to protecting religious freedom and places of worship for all faiths, not just its own.
- Divine Principle of Balance: The verse implies a divine principle where balance is maintained through defensive actions, preventing dominant oppressors from eradicating religious diversity and freedom.
- Lesson: Defensive struggle is sanctioned not just for the protection of Muslims, but for the universal principle of defending religious freedom and places of worship for all faiths. It is a struggle against universal oppression, not just oppression against Muslims.
Conclusion
In summary, Jihad is an expansive and profound concept in Islam, primarily signifying a dedicated striving in the path of Allah. The “Greater Jihad” emphasizes the critical internal struggle for moral and spiritual purification, which is considered foundational. The “Lesser Jihad” encompasses various external efforts, including intellectual discourse, social activism, economic contribution, and, as a last resort, defensive military action.
The Quranic verses Q.2:190-193 and Q.22:39-40 provide indispensable guidance on the conduct of defensive military Jihad. They explicitly permit fighting only in self-defense against aggression, oppression, and expulsion. These verses strictly forbid initiating hostilities, transgressing ethical limits, harming non-combatants, and destroying property. They mandate the cessation of hostilities once the aggressors cease, emphasizing mercy and forgiveness. Furthermore, they teach that the ultimate aim of such defensive struggle is to establish justice and religious freedom for all, protecting places of worship across different faiths.
A comprehensive understanding of Jihad reveals it as a holistic commitment to upholding truth, justice, and righteousness, both within oneself and in the world, guided by strict ethical principles that prioritize peace, human dignity, and the defense of universal human rights.
References
- The Holy Qur’an (various English translations, e.g., Yusuf Ali, Pickthall, Shakir).
- Qur’an 2:190-193
- Qur’an 22:39-40
- Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press, 2011.
- Armstrong, Karen. Islam: A Short History. Modern Library, 2002.
- Siddiqui, Mazheruddin. The Quranic Concept of War. Kazi Publications, 1980.
- Maulana Muhammad Ali. The Holy Quran: Arabic Text, English Translation & Commentary. Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam, 1917 (reprinted many times).
- Peters, Rudolph. Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader. Markus Wiener Publishers, 1996.
