Introduction Anticholinergics are a class of medications that inhibit the action of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Acetylcholine plays a crucial role in various bodily functions, including muscle contractions,...
Mechanism of labor in first and second stage of labor The mechanisms of labor refer to the physiological changes and processes that occur during the first and second stages of labor. Here’s an overview...
Stages of Labor The four stages of labor refer to the sequential phases a woman goes through during the process of childbirth. These stages mark the progression of labor from the onset of contractions...
Introduction Hypersensitivity reactions, also known as allergic reactions, occur when the immune system overreacts to a harmless substance in the environment or a foreign substance that enters the body. These reactions can range from...
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection that affects the female reproductive organs. It primarily involves inflammation of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, but it can also spread to other parts of the...
A headache is a common medical condition characterized by pain or discomfort in the head or upper neck region. It is one of the most prevalent health complaints and can vary in intensity, duration,...
Preterm labor and PPROM (preterm premature rupture of membranes) are two related medical conditions that can occur during pregnancy and may lead to preterm birth. Preterm labor: Preterm labor refers to the onset of...
Emergencies in oncology refer to critical medical situations that require immediate intervention and specialized care in patients with cancer. These emergencies may arise as a result of the primary malignancy itself or as complications...
Multiple pregnancies refer to pregnancies where more than one fetus develops in the uterus. There are different types of multiple pregnancies, which are classified based on the number of fetuses and the way they...
Crystal arthropathy, also known as crystal deposition disease, refers to a group of disorders characterized by the accumulation of microscopic crystals within the joints. The most common types of crystal arthropathy are gout and...
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) refers to a condition in which a fetus does not achieve its expected growth potential while still in the womb. It is characterized by the inability of the fetus to...
In medical terms, pain is defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. It is a subjective sensation that can vary in intensity, quality, and duration. Pain...
Prolonged pregnancy, also known as post-term or overdue pregnancy, refers to a condition in which a pregnancy extends beyond the normal gestational period, which is considered to be around 40 weeks from the first...
A miscarriage, also known as a spontaneous abortion, is the loss of a pregnancy before the fetus is able to survive independently outside the womb. It typically occurs during the first 20 weeks of...
Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic liver disease characterized by immune-mediated inflammation and damage to the liver cells (hepatocytes). It is considered an autoimmune disorder because the immune system mistakenly attacks the liver cells...
Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) refers to excessive bleeding following childbirth. It is a significant cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. There are two main classifications of PPH: primary and secondary. Primary Postpartum Hemorrhage (PPH):...
Pneumonia vs Pneumonitis Pneumonia and pneumonitis are both conditions that affect the lungs, but they have distinct definitions and characteristics. Pneumonia Pneumonia is an infection that causes inflammation of the air sacs in one...
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body, such as the kidneys, spine, and brain. TB...
Coagulation disorders in pregnancy refer to abnormalities in the blood clotting process that occur during pregnancy. During pregnancy, the body undergoes significant physiological changes to support fetal development, including changes in the blood coagulation...
Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is a term used to describe a group of conditions that result from a sudden reduction or blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle. It is typically caused by...
Leiomyoma, also known as a uterine fibroid, is a benign (non-cancerous) tumor that arises from the smooth muscle cells of the uterus. It is one of the most common types of tumors found in...
Genital prolapse refers to the descent or sagging of pelvic organs such as the uterus, bladder, or rectum into the vaginal canal. While the exact cause of genital prolapse is often multifactorial, there are...
Malpresentation refers to an abnormal positioning or placement of the fetus during pregnancy, particularly during labor and delivery. Normally, a fetus is expected to be in a head-down position with the head pointing towards...
Pathophysiology of pneumothorax and its management Pneumothorax refers to the presence of air in the pleural space, the space between the lungs and the chest wall. This air accumulation can lead to the collapse...
Asthma is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways, leading to recurrent episodes of wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and chest tightness. It is a common condition that affects...
Hypotonia, also known as low muscle tone, is a condition characterized by reduced muscle strength and poor muscle tone. It can affect children and adults and may be caused by various factors. Identifying the...
A cataract is a medical condition characterized by the clouding of the lens in the eye, leading to a decrease in vision. The lens, located behind the iris, plays a crucial role in focusing...
Potassium Homeostasis Physiology Electrolytes are electrically charged ions that play a crucial role in various physiological processes within the human body. They help maintain proper cell function, nerve conduction, muscle contraction, and fluid balance....
Antiviral agents are a class of medications used to treat viral infections. They work by targeting specific components of the viral life cycle, either inhibiting viral replication or preventing the virus from entering host...
Introduction Antifungal agents, also known as antifungals, are medications used to treat and prevent fungal infections. Fungal infections can occur on the skin, nails, hair, or inside the body. Antifungal agents work by either...
Chemotherapy refers to the use of drugs to treat various types of cancer and other medical conditions. These drugs, known as chemotherapeutic agents, work by interfering with the cell division and growth of cancer...
The most common congenital malformation of the central nervous system (CNS) is neural tube defects (NTDs). NTDs occur due to incomplete closure of the neural tube during embryonic development. The two most prevalent types...
Muscles of the thigh The thigh is composed of numerous muscles that are responsible for various movements and functions. Here is a list of the major muscles of the thigh: Quadriceps Femoris Group: Rectus...
Introduction Analgesia and anesthesia are both medical terms used to describe the suppression or relief of pain. While they are related concepts, they have distinct meanings and applications. Analgesia refers to the reduction or...
Introduction Antepartum hemorrhage (APH) refers to the occurrence of bleeding from the birth canal after the 20th week of pregnancy and before the birth of the baby. It is also known as third-trimester bleeding....
Breast Anatomy Basics The breast is a glandular organ located on the front of the chest in both males and females, although it is more developed in females. It consists of specialized structures that...
Meningitis Pathogens by Age Acute meningitis is an inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, usually caused by an infection. The pathogens causing acute meningitis can vary depending on the...
Drug poisoning refers to the harmful or toxic effects that occur when an individual takes or is exposed to a substance in excessive amounts or in a manner that is not intended. It typically...
Plastic surgery is a medical specialty that involves the restoration, reconstruction, or alteration of the human body. Plastic surgeons utilize a combination of surgical techniques and artistic principles to enhance the appearance of individuals...
Perioperative management refers to the comprehensive care and coordination provided to a patient before, during, and after a surgical procedure. It encompasses a range of activities and interventions aimed at optimizing patient outcomes and...
Introduction Fatty acid oxidation, also known as beta-oxidation, is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in cells to produce energy. It is a crucial pathway for energy production, especially during...
Globular proteins are a type of protein with a characteristic three-dimensional structure that is compact and roughly spherical in shape. They play crucial roles in various biological processes, including enzymatic reactions, signaling, transport, and...
Endocrinology is a branch of medicine and biology that deals with the study of hormones and their role in the regulation of various bodily functions. Hormones are chemical messengers produced by specialized glands in...
Introduction Valvular heart disease refers to any condition that affects the valves of the heart. The heart has four valves: the mitral valve, tricuspid valve, aortic valve, and pulmonary valve. These valves help regulate...
Bright field microscopy is a widely used technique in which organisms or cells are stained to enhance their visibility and improve contrast for observation under a microscope. The staining process involves applying colored dyes...
Viral classification and characteristics properties Viral classification is the process of organizing viruses into different groups based on their shared characteristics and properties. It allows scientists to better understand the diversity of viruses and...
Introduction Neuroradiology is a medical specialty that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and conditions of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), head, neck, and associated blood vessels using medical...
Hepatitis refers to the inflammation of the liver, which can be caused by various factors such as viral infections, alcohol consumption, autoimmune diseases, and certain medications or toxins. Hepatitis Epidemiology Overview Hepatitis is...
Introduction Steroidogenesis is the process by which steroids are synthesized in the body. Steroids are a class of organic compounds that include hormones such as cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone. These hormones play crucial roles...
Vasculitis refers to a group of disorders characterized by inflammation of blood vessels, resulting in damage to the vessel walls. This inflammation can affect blood vessels of varying sizes, including small, medium, and large...
Ovarian cancer is a type of cancer that originates in the ovaries, which are the reproductive organs in females responsible for producing eggs and female hormones. Ovarian cancer occurs when cells in the ovaries...