SKIN PHARMACOLOGY OVERVIEW
Introduction The pharmacology of skin involves the study of drugs and their effects on the skin. It includes topics like topical medications, which are applied directly to the skin, and systemic drugs that can affect the skin as a side…
MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF CONTRACTION IN SKELETAL MUSCLE
Introduction The molecular mechanism of contraction in skeletal muscle involves the sliding filament theory. It occurs when myosin (thick filaments) and actin (thin filaments) interact within the sarcomere, the functional unit of muscle fibers. During muscle contraction, myosin heads bind…
UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS OF NEUROINTERVENTION RADIOLOGY
Neurointervention is a medical field that involves minimally invasive procedures to diagnose and treat conditions affecting the blood vessels in the brain and spinal cord. Interventional radiology is a broader specialty that uses image-guided techniques to perform various procedures throughout…
NONVASCULAR INTERVENTIONAL RADIOLOGY
Nonvascular interventional radiology refers to a branch of radiology that focuses on minimally invasive procedures performed using image guidance to diagnose and treat various medical conditions, excluding those related to blood vessels. These procedures often involve using imaging technologies like…
VASCULAR INTERVENTIONAL RADIOLOGY
Vascular Interventional Radiology is a medical specialty that involves performing minimally invasive procedures using imaging guidance to diagnose and treat various vascular conditions. It’s a subspecialty within radiology and is focused on treating conditions affecting blood vessels, such as angioplasty,…
UNDERSTANDING ANXIETY DISORDERS
Introduction Anxiety disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterized by excessive worry, fear, or nervousness. They can include generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and specific phobias, among others. These disorders can significantly impact a…
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE BASAL NUCLEI
Basal nuclei, also known as basal ganglia, are a group of nuclei located deep within the brain. Anatomical and functional definition of the basal ganglia Anatomically, it consists of several interconnected structures, including the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus,…
GENERAL SENSORY PATHWAYS OF THE TRUNK AND LIMBS
The general sensory pathways for the trunk and limbs involve three main components: receptors, ascending pathways, and sensory cortex. Receptors: Specialized nerve endings called receptors are distributed throughout the skin, muscles, tendons, and other tissues in the trunk and limbs.…
EXPLORING THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EQUILIBRIUM
Equilibrium, also known as balance, is maintained by the vestibular system in the inner ear. It involves three main components: the semicircular canals, the utricle, and the saccule. These structures contain fluid and hair cells that detect changes in head…
EAR AND AUDITORY PATHWAYS
Ear Structures Explained The ear is a complex sensory organ responsible for hearing and maintaining balance. It consists of three main parts: the external ear, middle ear, and inner ear. Each part plays a crucial role in the process of…
A CLOSER LOOK AT VISION NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Introduction Neurophysiology of vision refers to the complex process by which our brain receives and interprets visual information from the eyes. It involves the transformation of light signals into electrical signals and the transmission of these signals through various neural…
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE AND RETINA
Eye Refraction & Indices Light refraction by the eye plays a crucial role in the process of vision. When light enters the eye, it undergoes refraction at various interfaces within the eye to focus on the retina, where photoreceptor cells…
IMPORTANT TIPS FOR UNDERSTANDING THE HEARING PHYSIOLOGY
Ear’s Ossicular System: Sound Conduction The ossicular system, also known as the ossicles, is a crucial part of the middle ear and plays a vital role in the conduction of sound waves from the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the cochlea…
DRUGS OF ABUSE PHARMACOLOGY
Introduction Drugs of abuse refer to substances that have the potential to be misused or cause addiction and harmful effects on the individual’s physical and mental health. These drugs can alter the brain’s chemistry, leading to various behavioral, psychological, and…
EYE AND VISUAL PATHWAY
Eye Coats Structure The eyeball is a complex organ responsible for vision, and it consists of three main layers known as coats or tunics. Each coat serves a specific function and contributes to the overall functioning of the eye. These…
HISTOLOGY OF FAT TISSUE
Fat tissue, also known as adipose tissue, is a specialized connective tissue primarily composed of fat cells (adipocytes). It plays a crucial role in energy storage, insulation, and protection of organs in the body. Adipose tissue is distributed throughout the…
AMAZING FACTS ABOUT GAMETOGENESIS
Introduction Gametogenesis refers to the biological process by which specialized cells called gametes are produced in sexually reproducing organisms. Gametes are sex cells, namely sperm in males and eggs (ova) in females, which are necessary for sexual reproduction to occur.…
MICROSCOPIC SLIDE PREPARATION AND TISSUE MORPHOLOGY METHODS
Microscopic slide preparation Microscopic slide preparation is a critical process that involves several steps to create a slide with a specimen that can be examined under a microscope. These steps ensure that the specimen is adequately preserved, stained (if required),…
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT FROM WEEK THREE TO EIGHT
In human embryonic development, the third and subsequent weeks up to the eighth week are crucial periods during which the foundation for various organ systems is laid down. Here’s an overview of the major events that occur during this period:…
FIRST AND SECOND WEEK OF HUMAN EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
Week 1 Embryo Development Major events taking place in the first week The first week of human embryo development is known as the pre-implantation period. During this time, a series of crucial events occur as the fertilized egg undergoes several…
HISTOLOGY OF CYTOSKELETON
Introduction The cytoskeleton is a complex and dynamic network of protein filaments that provide structural support, shape, and organization to eukaryotic cells. It plays a crucial role in maintaining cell integrity, facilitating cell movement, and enabling intracellular transport and communication.…
DRUGS USED IN PEPTIC ULCER DISEASE
GI Ulceration & Drugs: Prevention Several drugs or drug groups are associated with gastrointestinal (GI) ulceration. Here are some major ones: Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs): NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and aspirin, are commonly used for pain relief and reducing…
INSULIN AND ORAL ANTIDIABETIC AGENTS
Insulin Pharmacology Overview Insulin is a vital hormone produced by the pancreas and plays a critical role in regulating glucose metabolism in the body. Its pharmacology involves understanding its synthesis, release, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, and various formulations used for…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF ADRENERGIC AGONISTS AND ANTAGONISTS
Introduction Adrenergic agonists and antagonists are drugs that interact with the adrenergic receptors in the body, which are specific receptors for the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine (also known as adrenaline). These receptors are part of the sympathetic nervous system, which…
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO CHOLINERGIC AGONISTS AND ANTAGONISTS
Introduction Cholinergic agonists and antagonists are drugs that interact with the cholinergic system in the body, which is the system responsible for transmitting nerve signals using the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. These drugs can have different effects on various organs and tissues…
SHEDDING LIGHT ON SEDATIVE-HYPNOTICS
Major chemical classes of sedative-hypnotics Sedative-hypnotics are a class of drugs that are used to induce relaxation, reduce anxiety, and promote sleep. These drugs can be classified into several major chemical classes based on their molecular structures and mechanisms of…
AN INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL ANESTHETICS
Physiochemical Theories of Anesthesia: lipid and protein theory The physiochemical theories of anesthesia are explanations that attempt to elucidate how anesthetics produce their effects at the molecular level. Two important theories are the lipid theory and the protein theory. Lipid…
EXPLORING THE WORLD OF OPIOIDS
Introduction Opioids are a class of drugs that include natural, semi-synthetic, and synthetic substances that act on the body’s opioid receptors. These receptors are found in the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the body, and they play a…
UNDERSTANDING THE BRAIN METABOLISM AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Introduction Brain metabolism and neurotransmitters are crucial components of brain function and play vital roles in maintaining overall neurological health. Let’s explore each of these concepts in more detail: Brain Metabolism: Brain metabolism refers to the biochemical processes that occur…
METABOLIC REGULATION OF CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW
Introduction Cerebral blood flow (CBF) refers to the blood supply that nourishes the brain and provides oxygen and nutrients to support its metabolic demands. Proper regulation of cerebral blood flow is essential for maintaining normal brain function and preventing potential…
DRUGS ACTING ON THE BLOOD INFLAMMATION AND GOUT
Introduction Drugs acting on the blood, inflammation, and gout encompass a wide range of medications used to treat various conditions related to the circulatory system, inflammatory responses, and gout attacks. Here’s an overview of some commonly used drugs in each…
AN OVERVIEW OF APOPTOSIS AND AMYLOIDOSIS
Introduction Apoptosis: Apoptosis is a natural, programmed process of cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a fundamental mechanism used by the body to maintain tissue homeostasis, eliminate damaged or unnecessary cells, and control cell populations during development…
UNLOCKING THE SECRETS OF INTRACELLULAR ACCUMULATION
Introduction Intracellular accumulation refers to the gradual buildup or accumulation of various substances within the cells of an organism. These substances can include normal cellular components, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and pigments, as well as abnormal or toxic substances,…
METHODOLOGIES OF FUNCTIONAL MEDICAL RESEARCH
Medical Research in Medical Education Medical research plays a pivotal role as a main pillar in medical education due to its tremendous importance in advancing healthcare and improving patient outcomes. It is an essential component of medical training, and here…
CELL MEMBRANE BI-LIPID STRUCTURE
The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a crucial component of all cells. It separates the cell’s internal environment from the external environment, providing structural integrity and selectively controlling the flow of substances in and out of…
A REVIEW OF DRUGS ACTING ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Allergy Meds Overview Bronchodilators: Short-acting beta-agonists (SABAs): Examples include albuterol and levalbuterol. They act quickly to relax the smooth muscles in the airways, providing immediate relief from bronchoconstriction during asthma attacks or acute exacerbations. They are often used as rescue…
ROLE OF HISTAMINE IN ANAPHYLACTIC REACTIONS
Histamine plays a critical role in anaphylactic reactions, which are severe and potentially life-threatening allergic responses. When a person with a predisposition to allergies is exposed to an allergen (such as certain foods, medications, insect stings, or environmental triggers), their…
A CLOSER LOOK AT CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL DRUGS
Cardiovascular and renal disorders Cardiovascular and renal disorders encompass a wide range of conditions affecting the heart, blood vessels, and kidneys. These disorders can have significant implications for overall health and require appropriate medical management. Here are descriptions of some…
ADRENALINE VS NORADRENALINE
Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) are both important hormones and neurotransmitters produced by the adrenal glands. While they are closely related and have similar effects on the body, there are some key differences between them: Production and Release: Adrenaline and…
THE IMPACT OF DRUGS ACTING ON THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Autonomic Nervous System Overview The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the peripheral nervous system that controls and regulates involuntary bodily functions, maintaining homeostasis and responding to internal and external stimuli. It acts largely unconsciously and automatically, regulating…
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE BIOCHEMISTRY OF LIFE
Introduction The biochemistry of life refers to the chemical processes and reactions that occur within living organisms. It involves the study of the molecules, compounds, and biochemical reactions that are essential for life processes such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, and…
THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PUBLIC HEALTH
Introduction Epidemiology is a branch of medical science that deals with the study of patterns, causes, and effects of health-related events, conditions, and diseases within populations. It involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data to understand and control the…
AN OVERVIEW OF MICROSCOPY IN MICROBIOLOGY
Introduction Microscopy plays a crucial role in microbiology by enabling scientists to observe and study microorganisms at a cellular and subcellular level. Microorganisms are typically too small to be seen with the naked eye, and microscopy provides a means to…
GROWTH CONTROL OF PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS IN VIVO USING ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
Ideal Antimicrobial Agent Characteristics An ideal antimicrobial agent possesses several key characteristics that make it effective in combating microbial infections. Here are some of the important characteristics of an ideal antimicrobial agent: Broad-spectrum activity: An ideal antimicrobial agent should have…
PARASITIC INFECTIONS OF MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
Parasites are organisms that live in or on another organism, known as the host, and obtain nourishment and shelter from the host at the expense of the host’s well-being. These organisms, called parasites, exhibit a close and prolonged association with…
BACTERIAL INFECTIONS OF MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
Nationally notifiable bacterial diseases For the most up-to-date information, I recommend referring to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website or other official health agencies. Anthrax Botulism (foodborne, wound, and infant) Brucellosis Chancroid Chlamydia trachomatis infection Cholera Diphtheria…
VIRAL INFECTIONS OF MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
Viral Diseases & Body Systems Here are some examples of viral diseases and the body systems they primarily affect: Rhinoviruses: Rhinoviruses primarily affect the respiratory system, causing symptoms such as the common cold, sneezing, runny nose, and sore throat. Influenza…
INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT FUNGAL INFECTIONS OF MEDICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Mycosis: Fungal Infections Explained Mycosis: Mycosis refers to any fungal infection, which can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, hair, nails, and internal organs. Fungal infections can be caused by different types of fungi and may manifest…
CONTROLLING THE MICROBIAL GROWTH IN VITRO
Microorganism Growth Factors There are several factors that can affect the growth of microorganisms. Here are some of the key factors: Nutrients: Microorganisms require specific nutrients to grow and reproduce. These include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, vitamins, and minerals. The…
A CLOSER LOOK AT THE PATHOGENESIS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
The reasons why an individual might not develop an infectious disease after exposure to a pathogen There are several reasons why an individual might not develop an infectious disease after exposure to a pathogen. Here are some possible reasons: Immune…
Study Guide
