Vision Basics Refraction: Refraction refers to the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. When light travels through different substances, such as air, water, or glass, its speed changes, causing...
Posttranslational modifications of proteins Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) are covalent modifications that occur on proteins after translation, altering their structure, stability, localization, and function. Here are some of the major types of PTMs: Phosphorylation: Addition...
Hemoptysis is a medical term used to describe the coughing up of blood that originates from the respiratory tract, specifically the lungs and airways. It is often a symptom of an underlying respiratory condition...
Introduction Thrombocytopenia is a medical condition characterized by a low platelet count in the blood. Platelets are small, colorless cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood clotting. They help in the formation...
Transplantation surgery, also known as organ transplantation, is a medical procedure in which a diseased or damaged organ is replaced with a healthy organ from a donor. The purpose of transplantation surgery is to...
Arthritis is a term used to describe a group of diseases that primarily affect the joints in the body. It refers to inflammation and swelling of one or more joints, leading to pain, stiffness,...
Liver cirrhosis is a chronic and progressive condition characterized by the irreversible scarring and fibrosis of the liver tissue. This scarring disrupts the normal structure and function of the liver, leading to various complications...
Dermatology is the medical specialty that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the skin, hair, nails, and mucous membranes. Dermatologists are physicians who have specialized training in dermatology and...
Bone Structure: Collagen & Hydroxyapatite Bone tissue is a complex and dynamic connective tissue that provides structural support, protection, and facilitates mineral homeostasis in the human body. It is composed of various components, including...
Blood Cell Identification Criteria When identifying blood cells, several criteria are considered to distinguish different types of cells. Here are the common review criteria used for identifying blood cells: Cell Size: Blood cells vary...
Introduction Oncological emergencies refer to critical situations that arise in individuals with cancer, which require immediate medical attention and intervention. These emergencies can occur as a result of the cancer itself, its treatment, or...
Purine Synthesis Biochemical Steps Purine synthesis is a biochemical pathway responsible for the de novo synthesis of purine nucleotides, which are essential components of DNA, RNA, and ATP. The pathway involves a series of...
Pyrimidine Synthesis Steps Pyrimidine synthesis is a complex biochemical process that occurs in the body to produce pyrimidine nucleotides, which are essential components of DNA, RNA, and various coenzymes. The synthesis of pyrimidines involves...
Common Pediatric Orthopedic Conditions Pediatric orthopedics is a specialized branch of medicine that focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and management of musculoskeletal conditions in children and adolescents. It deals with a wide range of...
Uveitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the uvea, the middle layer of the eye. The uvea consists of the iris, ciliary body, and choroid, which are responsible for supplying blood to...
Contrast media, also known as contrast agents or contrast dyes, are substances used in medical imaging procedures to enhance the visibility of certain tissues, organs, or blood vessels. They help differentiate structures or highlight...
Introduction An intestinal stoma is a surgical opening created on the abdominal wall that connects a part of the intestine to the outside of the body. It is usually performed when a portion of...
Menorrhagia is a medical term used to describe abnormally heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding in women. It refers to a condition in which a woman experiences excessive or prolonged bleeding during her menstrual period,...
Pathophysiology of Pleural Effusion Pleural effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pleural space, which is the space between the two layers of the pleura (the thin membranes that line the...
In Vitro vs In Vivo Bacterial Growth The growth of bacteria can occur in two primary settings: in vitro and in vivo. In vitro growth refers to the cultivation of bacteria in a controlled...
An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a diagnostic tool used to measure the electrical activity of the heart. It provides valuable information about the heart’s rhythm, rate, and overall electrical conduction. A normal electrocardiogram...
Introduction Urinalysis and urine culture are two diagnostic tests used to evaluate the health and function of the urinary system and detect potential infections. Urinalysis: Urinalysis is a routine screening test that examines the...
Skin commensals and pathogens Cultural Characteristics of Skin Commensals: Diversity: The human skin harbors a diverse array of commensal microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and mites. These organisms are part of the skin’s natural...
Introduction An aneurysm is an abnormal bulge or ballooning in the wall of a blood vessel. It occurs when a weakened area of a blood vessel expands and becomes filled with blood. Aneurysms can...
Introduction A spinal injury refers to any damage or trauma that occurs to the spinal cord, which is a vital part of the central nervous system. The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves...
Mechanism of action of peptide hormones Peptide hormones are a class of hormones that consist of short chains of amino acids. They are produced and released by various glands and tissues in the body,...
Thyrotoxicosis & Graves’ Disease Thyrotoxicosis refers to a condition characterized by excessive thyroid hormone levels in the bloodstream. This condition can be caused by various factors, including diseases such as Graves’ disease, toxic multinodular...
Thyroid hormone biosynthesis Thyroid hormone biosynthesis is a complex process that occurs in the thyroid gland. The primary hormones produced by the thyroid gland are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which play crucial roles...
Introduction The process of labor, also known as childbirth, is a complex and intricate mechanism that allows the expulsion of a baby from the mother’s uterus. Labor can be divided into three stages: the...
Normal vaginal delivery, also known as spontaneous vaginal delivery, is the process of giving birth to a baby through the vagina without the need for surgical intervention. It is the most common method of...
Introduction Abortion and miscarriage are both related to pregnancy but have different definitions and implications. Abortion, also known as induced abortion, is the deliberate termination of a pregnancy before the fetus can survive outside...
Introduction There are several types of drugs commonly used in the treatment of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. These medications are primarily aimed at reducing the symptoms of psychosis, such as hallucinations, delusions, and...
Introduction Carditis refers to inflammation of the heart muscle, known as myocarditis, or the lining surrounding the heart, known as endocarditis. Microbial infections are one of the potential causes of carditis. Let’s explore the...
Introduction Hyperlipidemias, also known as dyslipidemias, refer to a group of disorders characterized by abnormal levels of lipids (fats) in the blood. These conditions involve disruptions in the metabolism of cholesterol and triglycerides, which...
The inguinal region refers to an anatomical area located in the lower abdomen, near the groin. It is named after the inguinal canal, which is a passage that extends from the abdomen to the...
Paget’s Bone Disease Overview Paget’s disease of bone, also known as osteitis deformans, is a chronic condition characterized by abnormal bone remodeling. It primarily affects older adults and is more common in individuals of...
Introduction Spirometry is a commonly used pulmonary function test that measures the amount of air a person can inhale and exhale and the speed at which they can do so. It is a non-invasive...
Introduction Sputum culture is a diagnostic test used to identify and determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, or viruses in a person’s sputum (mucus and other material coughed up from the respiratory tract). It...
Introduction Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) is a group of rare tumors that develop in the cells that form the placenta during pregnancy. It is also known as gestational trophoblastic neoplasia. GTD originates from abnormal...
Movement Disorder Symptoms Movement disorders encompass a wide range of conditions that affect the normal functioning of the body’s motor system. While specific symptoms can vary depending on the type and underlying cause of...
Blood Grouping in Transfusion Blood grouping plays a crucial role in blood transfusion to ensure compatibility between the donor and the recipient. The blood grouping system categorizes blood into different types based on the...
Introduction Blood groups, also known as blood types, are classifications of blood based on the presence or absence of certain molecules called antigens on the surface of red blood cells. The most well-known blood...
Introduction Hydatid cysts, also known as echinococcosis or hydatid disease, are parasitic infections caused by the larvae of the tapeworms Echinococcus granulosus or Echinococcus multilocularis. These cysts primarily affect the liver and lungs but...
Introduction The vermiform appendix, commonly referred to as the appendix, is a small, tube-like organ located at the junction of the small intestine and the large intestine. It is typically situated in the lower...
Breast Cancer Risk Factors Breast cancer is a complex disease influenced by various risk factors, some of which can be modified or managed, while others cannot be changed. Here are several risk factors associated...
Major types of breast lumps There are several major types of breast lumps that can occur in both women and men. It’s important to note that not all breast lumps are cancerous, and many...
Cardiac arrhythmia refers to an irregular heartbeat or abnormal heart rhythm. The heart normally beats in a regular pattern, but in cases of arrhythmia, the heart may beat too fast, too slow, or in...
Dyspepsia, commonly known as indigestion, refers to a group of symptoms related to the upper digestive system. It is a common condition that affects many individuals and can have various underlying causes. Classification of...
Soft tissue tumors, also known as mesenchymal tumors, are a diverse group of neoplasms that originate from the various types of soft tissues in the body, excluding bone and hematopoietic tissues. These tumors can...
Globin Gene Organization The organization of globin genes, including the beta and alpha gene families, is crucial for the synthesis of hemoglobin proteins, which are responsible for transporting oxygen in red blood cells. Here’s...