OVERVIEW OF DIPPING, DRY COW, CULLING AND QUARANTINE AS USED IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION
1) Dipping Dipping is a common practice in animal production that involves immersing animals, typically livestock, in a liquid solution or bath. The purpose of dipping is to control external parasites such as ticks, lice, fleas, and mites. The liquid…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF BLUNT END RESTRICTION ENZYMES
Blunt end restriction enzymes, also known as blunt cutters or blunt-end cutters, are a type of restriction enzyme that cleave DNA molecules in a manner that results in blunt ends. These enzymes recognize specific DNA sequences and cut the DNA…
OVERVIEW OF VARIOUS POLITICAL PROCESSES
Political processes refer to the various mechanisms, institutions, and procedures through which a nation’s government operates, makes decisions, and governs its citizens. These processes can be broadly categorized into three main areas: political representation, political participation, and policy-making. 1. Political…
AN OVERVIEW OF ISOSCHIZOMERS AND NEOSCHIZOMERS
Isoschizomers and neoschizomers are two important concepts in the field of molecular biology, particularly in the study of restriction enzymes. These enzymes play a crucial role in genetic engineering and DNA manipulation. Understanding the differences between isoschizomers and neoschizomers is…
OVERVIEW OF CLONING VECTORS, PROMOTERS AND EXPRESSION VECTOR
a) Cloning Vectors Cloning vectors are DNA molecules used to “carry” foreign DNA into a host organism, where it can be replicated and manipulated. There are several types of cloning vectors, each with its own unique features and applications. The…
OVERVIEW OF THE DIDEOXY METHOD OF SEQUENCING
The dideoxy method of DNA sequencing, also known as Sanger sequencing, is a widely used technique for determining the nucleotide sequence of DNA. This method was developed by Frederick Sanger and his colleagues in the late 1970s and has since…
OVERVIEW OF THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION METHODOLOGY
The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a powerful and widely used technique in molecular biology for amplifying specific DNA sequences. Developed by Kary Mullis in 1983, PCR has become an indispensable tool in various fields, including genomics, diagnostics, and forensics.…
OVERVIEW OF TRANSGENIC PLANTS
Transgenic plants, also known as genetically modified (GM) plants, are created by introducing new genes from one organism into another using biotechnology. This process allows scientists to modify the genetic makeup of a plant to achieve specific desired traits, such…
NATIVE AND FUSION PROTEINS OVERVIEW
The terms “native proteins” and “fusion proteins” are often used in the field of molecular biology to describe different types of proteins. Understanding the differences between these two types of proteins is crucial in various biological applications such as protein…
OVERVIEW OF MAXAM-GILBERT SEQUENCING
Maxam-Gilbert sequencing, also known as chemical sequencing, is a method for determining the nucleotide sequence of DNA. It was developed by Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert in 1977 and was one of the first methods for DNA sequencing. This technique…
AN OVERVIEW OF ZINC FINGER AND LEUCINE ZIPPER
Zinc finger and leucine zipper are both structural motifs found in proteins that are involved in DNA binding and protein-protein interactions. These motifs play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including gene regulation, signal transduction, and protein localization. 1) Zinc…
AN OVERVIEW OF BACTERIAL TRANSFORMATION BY PLASMIDS
Bacterial transformation is a process in which bacteria take up foreign genetic material, such as plasmids, from the surrounding environment. This natural process has been widely utilized in genetic engineering and biotechnology to introduce new genes into bacterial cells. Plasmids…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF DNA REPLICATION
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an exact copy of its DNA before cell division. This process is essential for the continuation of life, as it ensures that each new cell receives a complete set of…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF GENOTYPING BY PCR
Genotyping by PCR, or polymerase chain reaction, is a technique used to determine the genetic makeup of an individual or organism. It allows for the identification of specific genetic variations, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertions, deletions, or other…
AN OVERVIEW OF ANATOMICAL POSITIONS, TERMS OF POSITION AND ANATOMICAL PLANES
Anatomical Positions The anatomical position is a standardized way of observing and describing the human body. It serves as a reference point for medical professionals to communicate and locate specific areas of the body. Several key anatomical positions are used…
AN OVERVIEW OF NORMAL SPO2 AND PR BPM
SpO2, or peripheral capillary oxygen saturation, is a measure of the amount of oxygen-carrying hemoglobin in the blood relative to the total amount of hemoglobin in the blood. It is typically measured using a pulse oximeter and is expressed as…
OVERVIEW OF PINEAPPLE EXPRESS STRAIN
The Pineapple Express strain is a popular hybrid cannabis strain known for its unique combination of flavors and effects. It is a cross between the strains Trainwreck and Hawaiian, resulting in a sativa-dominant hybrid that has gained a strong following…
AN OVERVIEW OF GYNECOMASTIA
Gynecomastia is a condition where men experience enlarged breast tissue, which can be caused by a variety of factors. It is important to note that gynecomastia is not the same as moobs, which is a colloquial term used to describe…
OVERVIEW OF SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL CELLS IN URINE
Squamous Epithelial Cells in Urine Squamous epithelial cells are a type of cell found in the urinary system. When present in urine, they can indicate contamination from the external genitalia or the lower urinary tract. The presence of squamous epithelial…
COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF NERVE CONDUCTION VELOCITY AND ELECTROMYOGRAPHY TESTS
Nerve Conduction Velocity (NCV) and Electromyography (EMG) tests are diagnostic tools used to evaluate the functioning of the nervous system, particularly the peripheral nervous system (PNS). These tests are essential in identifying various neurological disorders and determining the appropriate course…
COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF GLUTEAL REGION
The gluteal region is located on the lower part of the torso, specifically over the buttocks. It is a triangular area bounded by the iliac crest of the pelvis, the sacrum, and the femur. The gluteus maximus muscle is the…
COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF PREMATURITY
Prematurity is defined as the birth of an infant before 37 weeks of gestation. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), prematurity is the leading cause of neonatal mortality and morbidity worldwide. Causes of prematurity The exact causes of…
OVERVIEW OF COMMON COSMETIC SURGERY OPTIONS
Cosmetic surgery versus Plastic surgery Cosmetic surgery and plastic surgery are two distinct medical specialties that focus on enhancing a person’s appearance. While they share some similarities, there are important differences between the two. Cosmetic surgery, also known as aesthetic…
A PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF RH INCOMPATIBILITY
Introduction Rh incompatibility, also known as Rh disease or hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), is a condition that occurs when there is an incompatibility between the blood types of a pregnant woman and her fetus. This condition arises when…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF VISUAL CYCLE
The visual cycle is the metabolic pathway that governs the processing and recycling of visual molecules in the retina and the brain. It is a complex process that involves the breakdown and reutilization of visual molecules, such as rhodopsin and…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF STOMACH DISEASES
Classification of diseases of the stomach Keep in mind that this isn’t an exhaustive list, and some diseases may overlap categories: Inflammatory Conditions: Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach lining, often caused by infection, alcohol, or certain medications. Peptic Ulcers: Open…
OVERVIEW OF ENDOCARDITIS, VALVULAR DISEASES, AND MYOCARDITIS
Endocarditis Types Endocarditis is an inflammation of the endocardium, which is the inner lining of the heart chambers and heart valves. There are several types of endocarditis based on different criteria. Here are the two primary classifications: Infective Endocarditis (IE):…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF ALVEOLAR VENTILATION
Alveolar ventilation refers to the volume of air that reaches the alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs) and participates in gas exchange with the blood. It is the difference between the tidal volume (the amount of air inhaled and…
SKIN PHARMACOLOGY OVERVIEW
Introduction The pharmacology of skin involves the study of drugs and their effects on the skin. It includes topics like topical medications, which are applied directly to the skin, and systemic drugs that can affect the skin as a side…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF ADRENERGIC AGONISTS AND ANTAGONISTS
Introduction Adrenergic agonists and antagonists are drugs that interact with the adrenergic receptors in the body, which are specific receptors for the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine (also known as adrenaline). These receptors are part of the sympathetic nervous system, which…
AN OVERVIEW OF APOPTOSIS AND AMYLOIDOSIS
Introduction Apoptosis: Apoptosis is a natural, programmed process of cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a fundamental mechanism used by the body to maintain tissue homeostasis, eliminate damaged or unnecessary cells, and control cell populations during development…
AN OVERVIEW OF MICROSCOPY IN MICROBIOLOGY
Introduction Microscopy plays a crucial role in microbiology by enabling scientists to observe and study microorganisms at a cellular and subcellular level. Microorganisms are typically too small to be seen with the naked eye, and microscopy provides a means to…
OVERVIEW OF ANTIBIOTICS SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING
Introduction Antibiotic susceptibility testing is a laboratory technique used to determine the effectiveness of antibiotics against specific bacterial or fungal strains. It helps in guiding appropriate antibiotic treatment for infectious diseases. The testing involves exposing the microorganism to different antibiotics…
DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY OVERVIEW
Disease epidemiology is the study of how diseases spread and impact populations. Epidemiologists investigate various aspects of diseases, including their causes, risk factors, transmission patterns, and methods of prevention and control. They collect and analyze data to understand the distribution…
ADENOIDS AND TONSILLITIS OVERVIEW
Introduction Adenoids and tonsils are part of the lymphatic system and play a role in the immune system’s defense against infections. Adenoids are located in the upper part of the throat, behind the nose, while tonsils are situated on both…
MUSCULOSKELETAL RADIOLOGY OVERVIEW
Musculoskeletal radiology is a medical specialty that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and injuries related to the bones, joints, muscles, and other soft tissues of the musculoskeletal system. Radiologists who specialize in this field use various imaging…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF ANTINEOPLASTIC DRUGS
Introduction Antineoplastic drugs, also known as anticancer or chemotherapy drugs, are a class of medications used in the treatment of cancer. They are designed to inhibit or destroy cancer cells, preventing their growth, proliferation, and spread within the body. These…
HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS OVERVIEW
Introduction Hypersensitivity reactions, also known as allergic reactions, occur when the immune system overreacts to a harmless substance in the environment or a foreign substance that enters the body. These reactions can range from mild to severe and can affect…
CRYSTAL ARTHROPATHY OVERVIEW
Crystal arthropathy, also known as crystal deposition disease, refers to a group of disorders characterized by the accumulation of microscopic crystals within the joints. The most common types of crystal arthropathy are gout and pseudogout, which are caused by the…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF ENDOCRINOLOGY
Endocrinology is a branch of medicine and biology that deals with the study of hormones and their role in the regulation of various bodily functions. Hormones are chemical messengers produced by specialized glands in the body, called endocrine glands. These…
PEDIATRIC ORTHOPEDICS OVERVIEW
Common Pediatric Orthopedic Conditions Pediatric orthopedics is a specialized branch of medicine that focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and management of musculoskeletal conditions in children and adolescents. It deals with a wide range of orthopedic conditions and injuries affecting the…
AN OVERVIEW OF INTESTINAL STOMA
Introduction An intestinal stoma is a surgical opening created on the abdominal wall that connects a part of the intestine to the outside of the body. It is usually performed when a portion of the intestine is unable to function…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF PLEURAL EFFUSION
Pathophysiology of Pleural Effusion Pleural effusion refers to the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pleural space, which is the space between the two layers of the pleura (the thin membranes that line the lungs and chest wall). The pathophysiology…
NORMAL ECG OVERVIEW
An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a diagnostic tool used to measure the electrical activity of the heart. It provides valuable information about the heart’s rhythm, rate, and overall electrical conduction. A normal electrocardiogram represents the electrical patterns that are…
THALASSEMIAS AND HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES OVERVIEW
Introduction Thalassemias and hemoglobinopathies are two different types of genetic blood disorders that affect the production of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. Thalassemias are a group of inherited blood disorders that affect…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF NEOPLASIA
Neoplasia is the abnormal growth of cells that can form a mass or lump, which is called a tumor. Neoplasia can be benign (not cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Here are some terms commonly used in neoplasia: Neoplasm: An abnormal growth…
A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF TISSUE REPAIR PROCESS
Introduction Tissue repair is the process by which damaged tissues in the body are repaired and regenerated. The process of tissue repair involves several steps including inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. When tissue damage occurs, the body’s immune system responds by…
FLUID PRESSURE OVERVIEW
Introduction Pressure in fluids refers to the force per unit area that a fluid exerts on any surface that is in contact with it. It is a scalar quantity and is measured in units of pascals (Pa) or newtons per…
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF REACTIONS OF BENZENE
Benzene is a six-membered ring compound with alternating double bonds, and it is one of the most fundamental organic compounds. Due to its unique structure, benzene undergoes a variety of chemical reactions that are quite different from those of aliphatic…
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD OVERVIEW
The electromagnetic field is a fundamental concept in physics that describes the interaction between electrically charged particles and electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic field is composed of two separate but related fields: the electric field and the magnetic field. The electric…
Study Guide
